# Risk, Ambiguity, and the Savage Axioms

*Ellsberg · Voice & Silence · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · 1961 · Open access*

The paper that introduced the Ellsberg paradox — demonstrating that people systematically prefer known-probability risks over unknown-probability ambiguity, violating expected utility theory. Foundational for understanding ambiguity aversion: the preference for a calculable risk over an incalculable one explains part of why people stay silent when they cannot predict how voice will land.

- **This page:** https://explore.psychsafety.com/n/ellsberg-1961/
- **View the source paper:** https://web.archive.org/web/20250907122408/https://www.dklevine.com/archive/refs47605.pdf
- **Interactive map:** https://explore.psychsafety.com/?mode=papers&node=ellsberg-1961

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- [Barriers to PS](https://explore.psychsafety.com/n/barriers-to-psychological-safety.md)
- [Prospect Theory](https://explore.psychsafety.com/n/prospect-theory-and-psychological-safety.md)